Foreign Influence on Old English

 

Celtic Influence in Old English

 

The original language of Britain was Celtic. The conquest of the Celtic population by the Angles, Saxons and Jutes must have resulted in a corresponding mixture of their languages. But as large numbers of the Celtic were exterminated by the invaders, only a few Celtic words have survived in Old English. The Celtic influence is chiefly seen in the names of places. Places like Devonshire, Cornwall, Cumberlain, London, Winchester, Salisbury, Gloucester, and Worcester preserve in their present day names traces of their earlier Celtic designations. Celtic nuances survive in the names of rivers- Thames, Avon, Dover, Wye, Dee, Esk. The word ‘Combe’ meaning a deep valley occurs in names like Duncombe, Holcombe and the word ‘Torr’ meaning high rock or peak can be seen in Torr, Torcross, Torhill etc. As the surviving Celts were a submerged race, their influence on the English language was almost negligible.

Latin Influence on Old English

 

There were three distinct occasions on which borrowing from Latin occurred before the end of Old English period. Even before the Anglo Saxons came to England, they had various relations with the Romans through which they acquired a considerable number of Latin words relating to agriculture, war and trade

For example, words like wine, flask, kettle, kitchen, cup, cheese, butter, onion, mint, linen, church, bishop etc.

The second occasion on which borrowing from Latin occurred was when the Teutons came to England and learned from the Celts a few additional Latin words which the Celts had acquired during the long Roman rule in the island. The Latin word ‘Castra’ (camp) resulted in the Old English place names as Chester, Manchester, Winchester, Lancaster, Gloucester etc.

The greatest influence of Latin upon Old English was occasioned by the introduction of Christianity into Britain in 597 A.D. A few words relating to Christianity such as church and bishop were borrowed earlier. But the great majority of words relating to church and its services were borrowed at this time.

For example, abbot, alms, altar, angel, anthem, candle canon, deacon, nun, disciple, epistle, hymn, martyr, mass, offer, organ, psalm, pope, priest, palm, shrine, temple, prophet, Sabbath etc.

Words relating to domestic life like cap, sock, silk, mat were also borrowed.

Words denoting food like radish, pear, millet, oyster, lobster, cabbage etc. were borrowed.

To this list may be added the names of trees, plants and herbs such as box, pine, aloe, balsam, cedar, cypress, fig, hyssop, lily, myrrh and the general word ‘plant’.

A certain number of words related to education and learning reflect another aspect of the influence of the church- school, master, verse.

 

Scandinavian Influence on Old English

 

The Scandinavian invasions on Britain resulted in the settlement of large number of Scandinavians in England. Most of the new inhabitants were Danes, although there were considerable Norwegian settlements in the northwest, especially in Cumbria and in a few other northern counties. The two people amalgamated soon through inter-marriages and by the sheer similarity between the two tongues. Most of these inhabitants were bilingual. Many Scandinavian words were transferred into the English vocabulary.

A large number of places bear Scandinavian names. The place names ending in –by (in Scandianvian meaning farm or town) like Grimsby, Whitby, Derby, Rugby and Thorsby are of Scandinavian origin as nearly all of them were occupied by the Danes. The Scandinavian word ‘thorp’, meaning village also has added many place names like Althorp, Bishopthorpe, Gawthorpe and Linthorpe. ‘Thwaite’ meaning an isolated piece of land has given names like Applethwaite, Braithwaite, Cowperthwaite, Langthwaite, Satterthwaite etc. there are a hundred names ending in ‘toft’, meaning a piece of ground, like Brimtoft, Eastoft, Langtoft, Lowestoft, Nortoft etc.

A high percentage of personal names have been transferred to English. Names ending in –son, like Stevenson and Johnson conform to the characteristic Scandinavian custom.

There were words relating to sea-roving and predatory people as the earliest relation between the two people were too hostile. For example, words like vessel, fleet, pirate, warrior, boatman, chief, battle, robbery, rapine etc show in what respects the invaders chiefly impressed the English.

Words relating to the law and social and administrative system came into English vocabulary. These are words like law, outlaw etc.

After the Danes began to settle down peaceably in the island, a large number of words began to enter into the language.

Nouns: axle tree, band, bank, birth, boon, booth, brink, bull, calf (of leg), crook, dirt, degs, egg, fellow, freckle, gait, gap, girth, guess, hap, keel, kid, leg, link, loan, mire, race, reef, reindeer, rift, root, scab, scales, score, scrap, seat, sister, skill, skin, skirt, sky, slaughter, snare, stack, steak, thrift, tidings, trust, want, window.

Adjectives: awkward, flat, ill, loose, low, meek, muggy, odd, rotten, rugged, scant, seemly, sly, tattered, tight and weak.

Verbs:  bait, bask, call, cast, clip, cow, crave, crawl, die, droop, egg on, flit, gape, gasp, get, give, glitter, kindle, lift, lug, nag, raise, rake, ransack, rid, rive, scare, scout, scowl, screech, snub, sprint, take, thrive, thrust.