Semantics

 

Semantics

Language is a living, growing thing. Changes are natural and inevitable in all the areas of language- vocabulary, pronunciation, spelling and syntax. Changes are noticed even in the meanings of words though they are supposed to be stable. For example, the word ‘silly’ which has a good meaning in Old English, the equivalent of ‘foolish’, or ‘stupid’. The change of signification is a universal feature of languages. Sometimes the primary sense remains along with other meanings the word has acquired; sometimes it is elbowed out by the fresh meanings, at times we even come across a complete reversal of meaning. Eg: grocer, fast etc.

What are the factors that contribute sematic changes? Association of ideas, shifting of emphasis, influence of other languages, social mores, psychological causes, metaphorical application, misunderstanding, euphemistic usage etc. are some of the important causes. For example, the word ‘deer’ from Old English deȱr meant animal. But when words like beast and animal were imported from French into English, they were used to refer to the generic term and deer came to have a restricted use. Similarly words from medicine and psychology like allergy, complex etc have acquired meanings different from their original ones. Some of the important semantic processes are the following.

1.       Generalization or Widening of Meaning

This is the process by which a word which originally had a limited or restricted sense acquires a wider reference. A typical example is the word ‘box’. Originally it was the name of a tree; then it came to refer to the wood from the tree and then to a small casket or receptacle made of box wood for jewels or money. The two limiting factors, the material and the size were gradually removed and today we can speak of boxes made of wood or silver or plastic and of any size. The shape of the box must have given rise to boxes (deep seats) in theatres. We also have letter box, post box, jury box etc.

Another example is the word ‘pipe’. Originally it meant a musical instrument; then it was applied to things resembling the pipe in shape, then it came to signify a hollow cylindrical body. Today the word pipe evokes different images to the smoker, the plumber and the musician.

Other examples are the words journey and journal, both derived from the French word jour which means day. Journey originally meant a day’s walk or ride; journal was a record of daily events. Today we can speak of a journey lasting several months or a monthly journal which in the strict etymological sense is absurd.

Other examples of generalization are:

Companion (one who eats bread with you and so your friend)

Comrade (one who shares room with another and so his friend)

Salary (originally the allowance given for Roman soldiers to buy salt, later remuneration for services rendered)

Candidate (originally a white-robed person appearing on a formal occasion)

Generalization is seen in proper nouns also. For example, the word ‘boycott’ from Captain Boycott, a harsh and unpopular agent looking after the estates of Lord Erne. Another example is the word ‘dunce’ from Dunce Scotus, the eminent scholastic philosopher whose followers were ridiculous dunces. ‘Maudlin’(morbidly sentimental) came from Mary Magdalene who was represented as tearful in early paintings. ‘Hooligan’ or ‘hooliganism’ is from an Irish family notorious for its rowdiness and riotous behaviour.

 

2.       Specialization or Narrowing of Meaning

It is the opposite process of generalization. Here a word which originally had a wide reference becomes restricted in meaning. A fine example of this type of the word is meat (Old English mete). In Old English it meant food in general. Chaucer uses it in this sense; the Authorized Version (1611) speaks of “green herb for meat”, “meat and drink” and in the proverb, “One man’s meat is another man’s poison.” The word now has acquired the meaning of edible flesh, perhaps due to the fact that flesh formed the most important part of food taken. Other examples are

Deer (originally any animal)

Wife (any woman)

Wed (to pledge or promise)

Science (knowledge in general)

Doctor (a learned person)

Shroud (a garment)

 

3.       Amelioration or Elevation of Meaning

Another important semantic process is amelioration. Here a word which originally had an unpleasant signification gradually improves in meaning. A fine example is the word ‘nice’. It is derived from Latin nercius meaning ignorant, foolish etc. From foolish it developed the sense of foolishly particular about small things, so fastidious, precise etc. A person fastidious in his dressing would naturally be well dressed. So gradually the term came to be used as a term of praise. But in modern English, it has lost much of its individuality and has become a vaguely pleasant term. Other examples are:

Lord and Lady

Lord originally meant bread winner. The bread winner is naturally the most important person in the house, its master. So the word moved up to acquire elevation; it came to be applied as a title of the nobles; then even applied to God and Christ. Lady originally meant one who kneads the dough. It was usually the mistress of the house. So it acquired the meaning of the most important person in the house after the master. In Middle English, the word was applied as the designation for a noble woman and also as a term of respect for a woman.

Steward

Steward is another word which shows a similar development. Originally it mean the ‘sty keeper’, one who looked after the pigs. Then it gradually rose and was used to refer to the person who looked after the cattle, still later the person who looked after the estate or property.

Knight, Jewel etc are other examples.

 

4.       Deterioration of Meaning/ Catachresis/ Pejoration

Catachresis is the opposite process of amelioration. In this phenomenon a word which originally had a good meaning or at least not an unpleasant one, goes down the scale and takes on a bad or uncomplimentary meaning. Deterioration and Elevation can be regarded as a kind of specialization. A classic example of this process is the word silly. This is derived from Old English sǣlig which meant blessed, happy, simple. The word was used in Old English Literature to qualify the Christ Child. Simple people could be easily exploited, deceived; their credulousness was equated with lack of intelligence and thus gradually the word became a synonym for foolish.

Knave (Old English cnafa=boy, youth) is another example. The word came to be sued for a boy used as a page, a servant and later to a dishonest servant and came to be a byword for rascal/scoundrel.

 

5.       Polysemia/ Radiation/ Multiplication of Meanings

This is a common phenomenon by which a word comes to acquire a number of meanings. A fine example is the word ‘head’. The shape, position and the importance of this part of the human anatomy have given rise to several meanings.

Head of the state, Head Master (chief)

Head of a nail (shape)

Head of the table, Head of the paper (position)

Headlines, to head etc are also in common use.

Paper is another example. Derived from papyrus or paper-reed, this shows multiple meanings. It may refer to the newspaper, an essay or dissertation, a document, a set of question papers, an official notice from Government etc.

Another example is the word ‘power’ (ability, capacity to do work). Power of intelligence, horse power, influence, a mathematical concept, the Big Powers etc. are different usages.

 

6.       Metaphorical Application

Many changes in meaning takes place in this semantic category. Sometimes the literal or primary sense survives along with the figurative or metaphorical one; sometimes it disappears. A good example is the word ‘keen’ (OE meaning is bold/wise). This word was originally applied to a warrior; later it came to express the attribute of the warrior, then applied to his sword and then to the sharpness of the sword’s blade, then penetrating etc. So in Modern English we have a keen edge, a keen intellect, keen desire etc.

Sad is another example. Originally it meant full, then full of serious thought, then full of sorrow. Shakespeare often uses this word in the sense of serious.

Bright is another word which means shining or polished. It is used metaphorically to mean cheerful, intelligent, quick witted etc.

Expressions like foot of a hill, grasp the meaning, bottleneck, headache meaning a worrying problem illustrate this phenomenon.

 

7.       Polarization/ Colouring

Polarization is another semantic process. A word sometimes acquires a meaning or emotional colouring for which there is no etymological justification. Gothic is a good example. It originally meant belonging to the Goths, a Germanic tribe. This is preserved in Gothic architecture. From the middle of the 18^th century, the word came to be associated with barbarians and meant wild, unrefined, horror-inspiring as in Gothic tales and romances.

Victorian (belonging to the period of Queen Victoria) is another example; it is used in the sense of prim, narrow minded, strait-laced morality and thus acquired a derogatory sense.

Bourgeois is yet another example. Originally meant middle class without any derogatory association.

 

8.       Loss of Colouring/ Loss of Intensity

This is also a common phenomenon. Words like awful, smashing, thumping etc are often used as terms of praise as in “it’s awfully sweet of you” (extremely), a smashing victory, a thumping victory etc.

 

9.       Euphemism

The desire of people to gloss over deformity, to refer to bad or unpleasant things in a respectable way, has given rise to several euphemistic expressions. Euphemism means to speak well. Death, sex, bodily function etc are often described in euphemistic terms: ‘to pass away’, ‘to find eternal rest’, ‘to be no more’, ‘to breathe one’s last’- are often used to mean ‘to die’. Cemetery (sleeping place) for graveyard; mental case for a mad person, financier for moneylender, toilet for lavatory, funeral director for undertaker, paying guest for boarder, to make love for the sex act- all illustrate this.

 

10.   Popular Misunderstanding

The meaning of a word is prone to modification and change due to misunderstanding. ‘Premises’ is a good example. A Latin word, it was used in legal documents; its original meaning was ‘previously mentioned’. This word was used to refer to details regarding houses, property etc which have been mentioned earlier. This was to avoid repletion. People came to mistake the term for ‘surrounding area’. It is in this sense, it is used in Modern English.

 

11.   Reversal of Meaning

This is an interesting phenomenon in which the original meaning of a word undergoes a reversal acquiring an opposite meaning.

‘Fast’ is a good example. It means quick, quickly etc. So we refer to a fast runner or a fast game. But a fast colour is one which does not go, which is fixed. The same meaning is seen in the word steadfast.

‘Grocer’ is another example. Originally it meant one who dealt ‘en gros’, that is in bulk. The change in meaning might have been due to a shift in emphasis. If the wholesaler sold in bulk, the retailer bought in the same way. In present day English, grocer means a small dealer, a retailer.

Another example is ‘restive’ which is etymologically related to ‘rest’ and means at rest. But the modern meaning of restless, impatient, fidgety might have been derived from the obstinate behaviour of a horse which stood still and so troublesome, unmanageable. So the meaning impatient, restless has come to be associated with the word.

 

 

Semantics is thus a fascinating area of linguistics, dealing with the behaviour of words in various contexts and situations and the modifications and changes of meaning resulting from these.